By Thomas Haugen, Stephen Seiler, Øyvind Sandbakk, and Espen Tønnessen
The authors are from Kristiania University College, University of Agder, and Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Norway
Reprinted and adapted from The Training and Development of Elite Sprint Performance: an Integration of Scientific and Best Practice Literature. Sports Medicine – Open, 5:44, 2019.
[Creative Commons license: creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0]
The 100-meter sprint has traditionally been categorized into three main phases: acceleration, maximal velocity, and deceleration. The acceleration phase can in turn be segregated into initial (start block and reaction), middle, and final subsections. Reaction time in world-class sprinters is typically 0.17-0.18 second. The shape of the velocity curve is consistent across performance level, but the duration and quality of each phase vary from athlete to athlete. Overall, maximal velocity is highly correlated with 100-meter sprint performance, and the best sprinters accelerate over a longer distance than their lower performing counterparts.
Power, technique, and sprint-specific endurance are considered key underlying determinants of 100-meter sprint performance. A very strong relationship exists between maximal horizontal power output and sprint performance; the shorter the sprint distance is, the higher the association with maximal horizontal power output. Power output demand in sprinting increases exponentially with velocity. Average step maximal horizontal power output in male and female world-class sprinters has been found to be 30.3 and 24.5 Watts per kilogram, respectively, typically reached after about 1 second of sprinting. The highest individual values for men and women are 36.1 and 29.3 Watts/kg, respectively, representing current upper limits in humans.
Sprint-specific endurance refers to the deceleration phase of the sprint. The velocity decline is typically accompanied by a reduction in step rate. Sprint-related fatigue is attributed to disturbances in the central nervous system and peripheral factors within the skeletal muscles. Available research indicates that leg stiffness, which influences elastic energy storage, is particularly crucial for sprint-specific endurance. Sprint-specific endurance is also determined by instantaneous energy delivery. Estimated from accumulated oxygen deficit measures, the relative anaerobic energy system contribution (from stored adenosine triphosphate, stored phosphocreatine, and anaerobic glycolysis) is about 80% for 100-meter sprint.
Sprint Performance Development
Sprint performance capacity evolves and devolves throughout life via growth, maturation, training, and aging. Age of peak performance in world-class sprinters is typically 25-26 years. However, the concept of training age needs to be considered when assessing age of peak performance. Athletes who start with specialized training at a young age may also tend to reach their peak performance at an earlier age than their counterparts who specialize somewhat later.
For world top 100-meter sprinters in their early 20s, mean annual improvements are in the range of only 0.1-0.2%. The very best athletes generally display greater improvement in the years just preceding age of peak performance compared with their lower performing counterparts. For example, the world’s all-time best male and female sprinters improve by an average of 8% from 18 years of age, while the corresponding improvement for Norwegian national-level competitive sprinters is 1.3-1.4%. The potential use of doping among some of the investigated athletes may have affected these results, but trainability variations across performance level may also be explained by other factors (e.g., training status, responsiveness to training, coaching quality, nutrition, etc.). Nevertheless, it becomes very challenging to enhance or even maintain sprint performance beyond the age of 30, most likely due to neural and/or hormonal factors and an age-related decrease in type II fiber distribution and/or cross-sectional area.
As a foundation for long-term training strategy, coaches rely on well-established training principles to design programs and make educated decisions.
Training Methods
The vast majority of scientific studies investigating sprint training methods are performed on young team sport athletes where brief sprints with short recoveries are the norm. Therefore, sprint training recommendations from the research literature have limited relevance to competitive sprinting, where elite 100-meter athletes perform sprint-specific training over various distances. Practitioners classify sprint running either according to phase of interest or primary energy system used. For the latter, sprint duration shorter than 6-7 seconds is considered alactic, while longer sprints are considered lactic.
In the following paragraphs, we present best practice guidelines for specific sprint training according to phase of interest. Total volume within these sessions is typically guided by the intensity and visual inspection of technique. That is, the session should be ended when drop-off in performance and/or technical deterioration is observed. Table 2 summarizes the best practice guidelines, while Table 3 shows examples of training weeks across varying meso-cycles.
Acceleration
When acceleration is the primary focus, leading practitioners recommend 10- to 50-meter sprints from blocks, crouched or a three-point start position. Block starts are considered more energetically costly than standing starts. The distances used will vary depending on athlete performance level, as better sprinters reach higher top speeds and accelerate longer than their lower performing counterparts. Full recovery is required between each sprint, allowing the athlete to perform each repetition without a drop-off in performance. According to the UK Athletics, longer recoveries are required for elite sprinters who are reaching higher absolute intensities than for younger developmental athletes. A typical acceleration session for a young and relatively untrained athlete might be runs over 20 meters from a crouched start with 2-minute recovery between each repetition, while an elite sprinter may perform sprints over 40 meters from blocks with 7-minute recovery in between.
Maximal Velocity
Flying sprints are typically recommended when the focus is to develop maximal velocity. The aim is to reach the highest velocity possible and continue the sprint run for only as long as velocity does not decrease. Athletes are able to maintain maximal velocity for only around 10-30 meters, depending on performance level and training status. Flying sprints are often performed from a rolling (jog in) start. Although the rate of acceleration is reduced, the athlete may be able to achieve a higher maximum velocity or reach the same velocity as after maximal acceleration but using less energy. The run-up distance typically ranges from 20-60 meters, depending on the distance an athlete needs to reach the highest speeds. Young and relatively untrained athletes may use a 20-meter build-up for 10-meter flying sprints with about 4-minute recovery in between. In contrast, elite competitors may use a 40-meter build-up for 30-meter flying sprints. Because their speeds may approach 12 meters per second, the recovery interval may need to be about 15 minutes before they can reproduce the performance again.
Sprint-Specific Endurance
The aim of sprint-specific endurance training is to improve the ability to maintain sprint velocity for as long as possible. Such training is typified by runs lasting 7-15 seconds at 95-100% intensity, with full recovery used between repetitions and sets. A rule of thumb among practitioners is that 1- to 2-minute recovery is required for every second spent on maximal sprinting. The higher the performance standard, the longer the recovery periods are required. While 2-3 × 100-meter sprints with 10-minute recovery may be an adequate sprint-specific endurance session for a relatively untrained junior, a well-trained elite competitor may perform 4-6 × 150-meter sprints with 20- to 30-minute recovery between repetitions.
Speed Endurance
While most scientific studies recommend that sprinting repetitions should be performed with maximal velocity, acknowledged practitioners have over decades prescribed sprint training during the preparation phase with sub-maximal intensity. Pioneer sprint coach Carlo Vittori (founder of the European School in sprint training and coach of the former 200-meter world record holder Pietro Mennea) introduced the “speed endurance” concept already in the mid-1970s. This consisted of series with repeated sprints over 60-80 meters, interspersed with approximately 2- and 8-minute recovery between sprints and series. The intensity began at 90% of maximal sprint velocity in the initial weeks and progressed to 95% throughout the preparation period. This was accompanied by a gradual increase in total volume from 600-800 meters (e.g., 2 series of 5 × 60 meters) and up to 1,500-2,000 meters (e.g., 5 series of 5 × 60 meters) during the preparation phase. However, as the competition season approached, the total volume decreased while the intensity gradually increased to maximal effort. Vittori’s speed endurance concept has later been adopted by other acknowledged sprint coaches.
Available evidence in endurance and strength training also demonstrates that high but sub-maximal intensity loading effectively stimulates adaptation through the interaction between high intensity and larger accumulated work that can be achieved before the onset of fatigue, compared with maximal efforts. While most practitioners argue that 92-95% intensity is required, the lowest effective sprinting intensity for stimulating adaptation is so far not established in the research literature. Given the exponential relationship between power and velocity, a reduction from maximal to about 95% of maximal velocity represents a substantial reduction in force and power load on the neuromuscular system. Most coaches tend to link speed endurance training to the deceleration phase of the sprint. Scientific studies of team sport athletes indicate that sub-maximal sprinting (i.e., about 90-95% of maximal velocity) is more effective for enhancing maximal velocity than for improving the acceleration phase.
Practitioners typically assess the athletes’ velocity during sprint training sessions for control and intensity regulation, and timing gates with 10- to 30-meter intervals are typically used for this purpose.
Resisted Sprinting
Resisted sprinting is a commonly used method to overload specific capacities for sprinting acceleration performance, including uphill sprinting, sled sprints, or using motorized devices. Although sled sprints have been most investigated in the research literature, uphill sprinting has also been reported as an effective tool for sprint performance improvement, at least in team sport players. It has been suggested that resisted sprint training may be a more effective tool to improve horizontal force and power production during sprinting compared with, e.g., traditional strength and power training performed in the gym. It is hypothesized that better transfer to sprint performance can be achieved if the resistance training exercises mimic the motor pattern and contraction type of performance movement. Resisted sprints are typically categorized based on the performance time decrement induced by the resistance into light (<10% velocity decrement), moderate (10-15%), heavy (15-30%), and very heavy (>30%) loads. A limited number of studies have exceeded relatively light resistance loading in fear of constraints such as slower running velocity and/or altered running technique. However, acknowledged scientists have recently questioned this approach, as strength and power exercises with heavy weights might be replaced by moderate to very heavy resisted sprint loading. The optimal loading for maximizing power output during resisted sprinting is a resistance that reduces the maximal velocity by about 50%. Research that has tested the use of very heavy resistance load in soccer players has found a substantial, increased horizontal force production when compared with non-resisted sprinting. However, only trivial between-group differences were observed for power output and sprint performance. Because peak power output during a maximal sprint is reached after very few steps and falls substantially during the remaining part of the sprint, it is reasonable to assume that the entire power output range should be targeted during the training process. What is beneficial for a small portion of the sprint is not necessarily beneficial for overall performance. Overall, the literature is equivocal regarding the potential short-term effects of resisted sprinting when compared with sprinting under normal conditions. Still, specific adaptations are observed for resisted sprint training. That is, resisted sprint training improves resisted sprint performance more than sprint performance under normal conditions. Whether enhanced resisted sprint performance provides potential transfer effects to normal sprinting over time remains unknown.
Resisted sprinting is commonly used in the preparatory training phase among successful sprint groups. However, the resistance loading varies across groups and individuals. While the UK Athletics argues that only light loads should be used to ensure proper running mechanics, some of the very best Jamaican sprinters (e.g., Asafa Powell) have applied heavy resistance loads during sled sprints. However, resisted sprinting is not prioritized during the competition season in either of these elite sprinting groups.
Assisted Sprinting
Assisted sprinting (e.g., downhill running, being pulled by an elastic cord or motorized devices) has occasionally been used by scientists and practitioners as a tool for maximal velocity improvement. Athletes are typically advised to focus on high step rate when approaching their
maximal velocity during assisted sprints. That is, supramaximal velocity should be a result of higher step rate, shorter ground contact times, and higher hip angle velocities. Towing force magnitude influences the kinematics of supramaximal running. Potentially negative training effects may arise (e.g., increased foot touchdown distance relative to center of mass), and towing force should be individualized to avoid poorer sprint mechanics. Due to the lack of studies investigating assisted sprinting and differences in methodology, it is difficult to draw conclusions from the research literature. Practitioners are generally reluctant to use assisted sprinting devices due to injury risk, although tailwind sprinting is typically preferred on windy days. Some athletes include assisted sprinting as a part of the warm-up routines prior to competitions. To the best of our knowledge, no studies or practitioners to date have applied assisted sprints for energy preservation purposes. Athletes may be able to perform higher volumes of submaximal sprinting (e.g., about 95% intensity) during assisted conditions as each sprint is performed with less perceived effort compared to sprinting under normal conditions. This approach remains to be tested.
Strength and Power Training
Strength and power training has received considerable research attention over the years, and training recommendations for hypertrophy, maximal strength, and power are outlined for novice, intermediate, and advanced athletes. Ballistic exercises with loading up to about 60% of one repetition maximum appear to be a highly potent loading stimulus for improving maximal power. However, heavier loading might be necessary to increase the force component of the power equation. Although there is a fundamental relationship between strength and power, improvements in sprinting performance do not necessarily occur immediately after a period of strength training. In fact, heavy strength training may induce negative short-term effects on sprint performance. As an athlete gets heavier, the energy cost of accelerating that mass also increases, as does the aerodynamic drag associated with pushing a wider frontal area through the air. “Bigger” is not necessarily better for sprinting, likely explaining why male and female elite sprinters have a body mass averaging “only” 77 and 58 kg, respectively. Vertically oriented and heavy strength training of the lower limbs does not automatically translate to higher horizontal force production during accelerated sprinting, but the probability of positive effects increases when strength and sprint training are combined.
Strength and power training is crucial parts of the overall training strategy among leading sprint practitioners, and such training is typically performed 2-3 times per week during the preparation period. Exercise selection typically varies from general (e.g., squat, snatch, clean and jerk) to more “sprint specific” (e.g., split squats, single-leg deadlifts, lunges, step-ups, and one-legged squats). Sequencing of sessions differs among coaches, but the majority schedule strength training the day after sprint-specific training to avoid sore muscles when sprinting. Strength and power training is typically structured as consecutive 4- to 6-week cycles where emphasis is first put on hypertrophy, then maximal strength, and finally explosive strength/power/plyometric training. The goal of this model is to “transform” maximum strength in weight room exercises into functional power on the track. These periods of heavy strength training are often combined with high volumes of sprint training at submaximal intensity. The closer to the competition season is, the more emphasis on maximal velocity sprinting, explosive strength, and ballistic exercises. Overall, no major discrepancies in sprint-related strength and power training recommendations can be observed between science and best practice when comparing these literature sources.
Plyometric Training
Plyometric exercises are characterized by rapid stretch-shortening cycle muscle actions and include a range of unilateral and bilateral bounding, hopping, jumping, and medicine ball throw variations. Plyometric training is normally performed with little or no external resistance and has been shown to significantly improve maximal power output during sport-specific movements. As a rule, the more specific a plyometric exercise is to stretch rate and load characteristics of the sport movement, the greater the transfer of the training effect to performance. Sprinters are encouraged to use different types of high-intensive bounding, jumping, and skipping exercises to ensure that power production is exerted in the horizontal plane. The underlying mechanisms are theorized to elicit specific adaptations in neural drive, rate of neural activation, and intermuscular control, which result in an improved rate of force development.
The reutilization of stored energy as a strategy for sprint performance has been questioned, as storage and release of elastic energy take time. Human tendons stretch under load, and sprinters should likely minimize the downside of having these elastic connectors. Adding to the argument, world- class performers sprint with considerably higher leg stiffness than their lower performing counterparts. Based on these considerations, sprinters should focus on leg stiffness (e.g., short ground contact time) during plyometric exercises. Interestingly, this approach was utilized with seeming success by coach Carlo Vittori and the Italian School of sprint training already in the 1970s. The best athlete, Pietro Mennea, performed horizontal jumps and skipping exercises with a weight belt, and ground contact time during these exercises never exceeded 100 milliseconds. This contact time is very similar to those obtained by elite sprinters at maximal velocity. Mennea also performed assisted sprints while equipped with a weight belt (weight vests serve the same purpose). Although these training methods offer strong leg stiffness stimulations, they are demanding and probably increase injury risk, particularly for the Achilles tendon.
This may explain why most practitioners perform more traditional plyometric drills as bilateral obstacle (hurdle) jumps, multi jump circuits, medicine ball throws, and unilateral bounding exercises. Although the highest volumes are accomplished during the preparation phase, some plyometric training is performed during the competition season.
Recovery Strategies
The performance capacity of an athlete depends on an optimal balance between training and recovery. While sleep and nutrition are fundamental for the restoration of daily life and the recovery process following physical exercise, several recovery strategies have been explored to improve recovery in athletes. Within leading sprinting communities, so-called tempo runs (100-300 meters running with brief recoveries and intensity 60-70% of maximal sprint velocity) are commonly used between days of high-intensive training to loosen up stiff muscles and improve cardiovascular fitness. (Note that tempo runs in a sprint training setting are different to those in endurance training settings). Total volume per training session is typically about 2,000 meters during the preparation period and about 1,000 meters during the competition period. Although the scientific evidence for post-exercise recovery purposes is limited, tempo runs contribute to a total training volume that may increase the athletes’ trainability and durability in the long term.
A number of passive recovery modalities have also been applied by practitioners over the years, including massage, stretching, compression garments, cold water or contrast water immersion, cryotherapy, hyperbaric oxygen therapy, and electromyostimulation. While there may be some subjective benefits for post-exercise recovery, there is currently no convincing evidence to justify the widespread use of such strategies in competitive athletes. Placebo effects may be beneficial, and at the individual level, certain recovery modalities may elicit reproducible acceleration of recovery processes. Future studies of experimental models designed to reflect the circumstances of elite athletes are needed to gain further insights regarding the efficacy of various recovery modalities on sprint performance.
Tapering
Tapering refers to the marked reduction of total training load in the final days before an important competition. Tapering strategies consist of a short-term balancing act, reducing the cumulative effects of fatigue, but maintaining fitness. Because tapering strategies and outcomes are heavily dependent on the preceding training load, it is often challenging to separate tapering from periodization and training programming in general. According to several authors, a realistic performance goal for the final taper should be a competition performance improvement of about 2-3%. However, these estimates are mainly based on well-trained athletes in endurance- (swimming, running, cycling) or strength-related sports. Based on individual performance variation data in elite sprinters, it is reasonable to expect smaller relative tapering effects for sprinting athletes.
The general scientific guidelines for a likely effective taper in strength- and power-related sports are a 2- to 3-week period incorporating 40-60% reduction in training volume following a progressive non-linear format, while training intensity and frequency are maintained or only slightly reduced. The strategies employed by successful track and field are generally consistent with research. The 10-day taper program developed by Charlie Francis has received considerable attention within the sprinting community (Table 4). Here, provided that the preceding workout the last 6-8 weeks has been performed according to plan (no injuries or disease), the last extensive and high-intensive sprint session is performed 10 days prior to the most important competition of the year, then followed by easy sprint training sessions (low volume at 95% velocity) 8, 6, 4, and 2 days before competition. Stephen Francis argues for a slightly different approach, mainly decreasing the volume by 30% over the last 10 days before a major competition. His most successful athlete, Asafa Powell, achieved world record performances in June as well as September.
Given that there are several roads to Rome in terms of tapering, it is generally accepted that the training during this period should be highly specific. That is, only exercises that directly assist sports performance should remain, while accessory work and assistance exercises should be removed from the training prescription. Moreover, the number of technical inputs should be kept to a minimum to prepare the athletes mentally and build confidence. Successful coaches adapt a holistic strategy where physiological, technical, and mental aspects are integrated into the tapering process. The individualized approach is consistent with discussions of coaching, reinforcing that not all athletes are the same, nor are circumstances and contexts, and hence, a “onesize-fits-all” approach is rarely appropriate.
For a list of article references, contact the editor.
